Dear friends,
I send, as promissed a more detailed text about Pangration History.
Prof Dr. Athanasios Nakasis, architect
President of the Committee for the Historical Study of the Pangration Sport
Secretary of the World Pangration Federation
Secretary of the Greek Pangration Federation
The origins of the Pangration are to be found in ancient Greek mythological traditions: the struggle of Heracles with the Nemean Lion, of Theseus with the Minotaur, and of Ajax with Odysseus. Later, in the Classical period, worship of “Heracles Pankrates” is also attested.
Historical sources, mentioning the Pangration, cover the period from the 8th century BC to the 12th century AD (those after the 5th century AD are lexicographical). Literary, epigraphical, and iconographical evidence contributes to our understanding of this ancient sport.
The topic of ancient sport has held the interest of historians and archaeologists for quite some time. Besides two publications of the 16th and 17th century AD that are preserved, already in the 19th century a number of articles (especially entries in encyclopedias and lexica) and books were written on the subject. The total number of relevant studies numbers in the hundreds.
References in ancient literary texts to the sport are usually direct. There are nevertheless passages that refer indirectly to the sport, in which the term “Pangration” (or another relevant term, such as “pangratiast”) does not appear. It is consequently necessary to attend to these indirect references also.
The Pangration in ancient sources is sometimes referred to as “pammachion” or “pammachon.” The term “pammachon” in reference to the sport is attested exclusively in Byzantine authors. It is found once in Dio Chrysostom (“Heracles pammachon”) and once in Hesychius (“Cypriot wrestling is called pammachon by some, rustic by others.”). The term “pammachoi,” meaning athletes, is also attested once in Theocritus. In lexica (Photius, the Suda, etc.), the oldest of which date to the 1st century AD, the term is spelled “pammachion.” The term “pammachion” is not attested in any Classical or Byzantine text except these late lexica. Nor are there any epigraphical attestations of this term.
The term “Pangration” and the terms derived from it are attested in about 80 inscriptions in multiple entries, and in about 95 authors, with multiple attestations of the term per author.
References in ancient authors and inscriptions provide evidence for the management of the sport, famous athletes, the prizes they won in major and minor competitions, and so on.
On the basis of ancient testimony, it seems that the Pangration was included in the Olympic games by 648 BC.
Ancient sources indicate that the Pangration was an integral part of major and local athletic contests in the Classical and Roman periods, from Italy to Anatolia and from the Black Sea to Egypt. It was even a part of the required military training of ephebes (young men). It was the most popular sport of Antiquity because of the large demands it made on athletes, the diversity it provided as a spectacle and the excitement it created in the audience. These characteristics are evident in its ancient name, Pangration, which literally means “to dominate totally.” Philostratus characterizes it as “the best [sport] in the Olympic games.”
The number of references and range of competitions that included the Pangration shows that no large-scale athletic competition could fail to include it.
According to Aristotle, Leucarus of Acarnania finalized the sport’s rules. Matches were conducted in accordance with the same general rules that governed all sports. The athletes competed in age classes called κρίσεις: initially there were only two, children and adult men, but gradually the category of young men was introduced, although in some competitions it was never used. Other categories for children, younger and older, are mentioned in some inscriptions, although it isn’t known exactly how they were defined. Athletes were selected to compete with each other by lot. When the number of competitors was odd, one of them had a bye (έφεδρος), and he advanced to the following round without having to compete. Consequently he had to compete fewer times to reach the final round. When a competitor won without a single bye, he mentioned it in victory monuments with pride. Another remarkable victory was called “dustless” (ακονιτί), namely one in which no actual wrestling took place in the dusty arena, because opponents were afraid to face the victor. Although such victories demonstrated the greatness of the athlete, it was not at all pleasing to the audience, who lost the opportunity to watch the match.
Pangratiasts were especially honored in antiquity because of the extreme difficulty of the sport. This is evidenced by the fact that our sources preserve the names of many famous athletes, and in many cases victories and anecdotes from their lives:
Arrachaion died during a match and was declared the winner posthumously.
Sostratos of Sicyon used a special technique in which he bent back the fingers of his opponent.
Polydamas from Skotoussa in Thessaly is the subject of legendary stories, such as that he fought a lion in Thrace.
Theogenes son of Timoxenos of Thasos, who had as many victories in the Pangration as in boxing, in both major and local competitions, 1400 in total.
Titus Flavius Archibios of Alexandria, Aelius Aurelius Menander of Aphrodisia, Marcus Aurelius Demostratus Damas and his son, Marcus Aurelius Damas, of Ephesus, who had a host of victories in the Roman period.
Titus Flavius Artemidorus, son of Kyreinas Artemidorus, of Adanas, had another unprecedented series of victories, as stated in an honorary monument: he won in the competitions of all Asia in Smyrna as a young man in the Pangration, and in the next five years in wrestling and Pangration as an adult, as “first of all men.”
The inscriptions on the funerary monuments of athletes sometimes record his death during a match.
Particularly notable is the regulation that states that Tiberius Claudius Rufus was victorious. The match was stopped because of nightfall. The Eleians announced that both of the athletes were victors. The resolution for Rufus is preserved; another one would have existed for his opponent.
On one occasion, competitors honored Callicrates son of Diogenes of Aphrodisias for his performances and character after he suffered an injury to his shoulders that stopped him from continuing to fight. Commisions of statues (busts) of him and the establishment of a statue were planned in Aphrodisias and Ephesus. The purpose of this act was made clear: to make the inevitable “heavy-heartedness” “consolable.”
An inscribed monument in honor of Marcus Aurelius son of Asclepiades of Alexandria, also called Hermodorus, lists praiseworthy behaviors by athletes in competitions, and outlines a framework of fair play. Hermodorus achieved many victories and stopped competing at the age of 25 due to serious injuries. Later he came out of retirement to win a few more competitions.
The prizes in many games could be very financially valuable. There are signs, moreover, that prizes for winning the Pangration in some competitions were much more valuable than prizes for winning other events. For certain known Pangratiasts even the prices given to them after their victories are known, other than prizes. In many cases, statues or busts in sanctuaries were dedicated in their honor. Some political and priestly offices were allocated to winners in the Pangration, and it seems that they received them because of their athletic achievements. Many cities awarded citizenship to Pangratiasts from other cities in order to honor them. An inscription from Aphrodisias records that the council and assembly decided to honor an athlete with the “largest and best honors.”
In catalogues of athletic victors, the Pangration is referred to as “sacred,” without listing the names of the winners, presumably because the winner is the deity. Other than the Pangration, it is rare for a sport to be characterized as “sacred.” It seems, therefore, that the Pangration had a special status in the minds of the ancients.
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between wrestling and the Pangration in ancient texts. This is probably due to the techniques shared by the Pangration, wrestling and boxing.
Inscriptions do not contribute significantly to the study of the nature of the sport, or the similarities and differences it had with wrestling and boxing. There is only one honorary dedication that does, which notes that the shoulders are the most useful body part for a Panrratiast.
Ancient sources provide information about the following:
1. Occasions for Pangration matches
According to Greek traditions, pankration contests first began outside established athletic contests. Events such as funeral games in honor of mythical figures created the initial framework for later sporting events. Several sources refer not to established games but to matches following a challenge.
Pangration was often involved in military training. In Sparta there were even Pangration matches for women.
In some cases, fights are described occurring outside of the formal structure of the match. Although these are not direct references to the Pangration, information about techniques provided in these descriptions could lead to a clearer understanding of the technical vocabulary of the Pangration. This technical vocabulary was introduced later when it formed part of the Panhellenic games, which finalized its rules of conduct.
2. Locations of Pangration matches
Matches were always held during festival performances, especially at Olympia (the Olympic games), at Delphi (the Pythian games), Isthmia (the Isthmian games) and Nemea (the Nemean games).
Immediately afterwards were the Panathenaic games in Athens. In Sparta, the Pangration was only practised as part of military training. There is evidence for matches in other regions and cities, including Egypt, Cyprus, Syria, Arcadia, Euboea, Acarnania, Macedonia, the Troad, Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Cappadocia, Samaria, Argos, Epidaurus, Sicyon, Corinth, Eleusis, Oropos, Chalcis, Delos, Amorgos, Kos, Plataia, Thebes, Lebadeia, Larissa, Phthia, Actium, Dodona, Apollonia, Olynthus, Thessalonike, Mytilene, Chios, Kardia, Adramyteion, Pergamon, Nikomedeia, Cyzicus, Smyrna, Sardis, Philadelpheia, Tralleis, Prousiada, Nicomedeia, Nicaea, Scythopolis, Pesinous, Phrygian Metropolis, Aphrodisias, Hierapolis, Agyra, Caesaraea, Smintheion, Knidos, Termessos, Selge, Stratoniceia, Zeugma, Anabarzos, Mopsouestia, Syrian Tripolis, Antioch, Damascus, Syrian Laodicaea, Burretus, Tyre, Samarian Neapolis, Gaza, Alexandria, Claudiopolis, Arabian Philadelpheia, Neapolis, Potiolus, and Rome.
The sanctuary of Olympia was part of the territory of Pisa, which originally organized the Olympic games. With the conquest of Pisa, the games were administered by Elis. The Pisatans never relinquished their rights over Olympia, and whenever they could they organized the Olympic games, as for example in the 34th and 104th Olympiads, with the help of the Arcadians. These Olympic games, which were called by the Eleans “Unolympiads” (Ανολυμπιάδες), are not included in the lists of Olympic games maintained by the Eleans.
3. Cities and regions of origin of Pangratiasts according to the ancient sources
Adana, Aegion, Alexandria, Alexandria in the Troad, Antioch, Antium, Aphrodisias, Arcadia, Argos, Athens, Boeotia, Caesarea, Calymnos, Cleonae, Chalcis, Chios, Cnidus, Colophon, Corinth, Cos, Cyme, Cyzicus, Ephesus, Epirus, Eretria, Hermopolis, Hypaipa in Lydia, Larissa, Magnesia, Magnesia on Maeander, Phrygian Metrapolis, Miletus, Myndos, Myrai, Naxos, Opous, Oropos, Oxyrhynchus, Pergamon, Pharsalus, Philippi, Priene, Rhodes, Rome, Samos, Sardis, Selge, Sicyon, Smyrna, Stratonicaea, Synnada, Syracuse, Lycian Telmessos, Tenea, Pisidian Termessos, Thasos, Thebes, Thespiae, Thesprotis, Thessalonika, Thyateira, Tralleis.
4. Locations for Pangration training and competition
According to ancient sources, venues for Pangration matches and training bouts were mainly gymnasia, palaestra, stoas, stadia, konistras, theatres and, in Roman times, amphitheatres.
5. The body and nudity of Pangratiasts
Typically Pangratiasts competed in the nude, just like other athletes did, although of course they had to possess the right body type and muscle. Pangratiasts were different from other athletes in that they had particular behaviors, diet, hair and body care, especially prior to a competition. When they were competing they anointed themselves with oil and sand, as did other athletes. In imperial times, the Aleiptes (the teachers of the athletes) put wax on the bodies of the Pangratiasts (and wrestlers) in the Aleipterion, a separate part of the gymnasium or the palaestra.
6. Rules of the Pangration
Ancient sources define the so-called “extreme” sports (Pangration, Wrestling, Boxing) and also mention:
referees and officials of the competitions. At Olympia the supervisors and judges of the competitions were called Hellenodikai,
draws to determine the competitors,
age categories: children, young men, and men,
the sequence of the sports,
the sports that comprise the pentathlon. The Pangration was not part of the pentathlon, although there is evidence that it was put in place of the long jump,
the beginning of the competition. Athletes were sent between greetings prior to the beginning of the competition, such as “Erroso” (Έρρωσο), meaning “be strong.”
the penalties for cheating (what today would be called unsportsmanlike behavior).
At Olympia, stone piers are preserved in front of the entrance to the stadium, which served as bases for bronze statues of Zeus called “Zanes” (the plural of Zeus). These statues were financed by the fines imposed on athletes who violated the rules of the games. These fines deterred athletes who intended to bribe officials or commit other violations. The setting up of such a statue was particularly shameful for athletes, their family and their city.
An athlete could also be barred from competition in event of a serious violation.
Conscientious athletes did not avoid competing in events that they had announced they would compete in. Such actions created large problems in the conduct of the whole sport and even attracted penalties.
withdrawal due to cowardice
equipment:
In some cases gloves could be used.
In the Pangration belts were were not usually used, although there are some indications that it was not excluded.
In a very few cases there is evidence for the use of iron accessories, to make the matches bloodier. (The Pangration was primarily a preparation for war, in that it accustomed the soldiers to the sight of blood, injury and death, all of which are mentioned in certain cases. Roman games in the amphitheatre had a similar function).
Specific rules: It is sometimes been supposed that everything was permitted in the Pangration.
Restrictions included a ban on biting, gnawing, gouging (of the eyes), and punching, but only in a standing position.
The end of the match.
7. Techniques of the Pangration
“Upper” Pangration. “Lower” Pangration. Common hits of the Pangration and Boxing. Common techniques of Wrestling and the Pangration. Positions of feet. Holds. Neck holds. Kicks. Strikes on the knee. Strikes with the knee. Fall.
Training and exercise. Aims: the education of young men, strength training, military education. The role of the trainer or coach.
Methods of training:
Korykomachia: an exercise in which athletes struck the korykos, a leather sack filled with fig seeds or flour or sand, which hung from the ceiling, just like a modern boxing bag.
Skiamachia: shadowboxing.
Cheironomia: various hand exercises, especially for boxers.
Terms:
«Αγκοινίζω/αγκυρίζω»: To throw down of an opponent after wrapping him up or putting a leg behind his knee.
«Αγκυλίζω»: To hold with a bent arm or behind the knee. Or to hold with the fingers.
«Αγκωνίζομαι»: To twist (curved, like the elbow [αγκών]).
«Άγχω, απάγχω, αποπνίγω, πνίγω»: To apply a choke hold, strangle.
«Ακροχειρία»: The handshake at the first phase of a match, before the physical engagement. Some athletes squeezed the hands of their opponents.
«Αλίνδησις», «κυλίνδησις», «κύλησις»: Rolling of athletes on the arena floor. The athletes grapped while rolling.
«Αναβαστάζω»: To hold and lift the opponent up high.
«Απάγω»: To snatch.
«Αποπτερνίζω»: To push away with the heel.
«Η απ’ Αρότρου πληγή»: A very violent blow with the right hand.
«Γαστρίζω»: To strike the opponent in the belly.
«Διαλαμβάνω»: To grasp an opponent around his abdomen.
«Διασπάω»: To break violently or to dislocate a limb.
«Δράττομαι»: To grasp tightly, to grasp and hold the hand tightly.
«Εκτραχηλίζω»: To fracture the neck.
«Εξαγκωνίζω»: To push with the elbow.
«Επαποπνίγω»: To choke.
«Επισπάω»: To pull behind me.
«Κακομαχώ»: To fight deceitfully or desperately.
«Κλιμακίζω»: To make use of the technique called the ladder (κλίμαξ), that is, to jump up on the back of the opponent and to apply pressure on him.
«Κυβιτίζω», «Ωλεκρανίζω»: To strike with the elbow.
«Λάξ»: With kicks.
«Λακτίζω»: To strike hard with the foot.
«Λυγίζω»: To avoid blows by bending and turning.
«Μεταπλασμός», «Παρακαταγωγή», «Παραπλαγιασμός», «Παράπλαστον»: A type of wrestling. The athlete, turning sideways, grabs the opponent to roll him over.
«Οδάξ»: With bites.
«Ορθοπαιία»: A direct blow from a standing position.
«Ορθοπάλη»: Wrestling from a standing position.
«Ορθοστάδην»: In a standing position.
«Παρακρούω»: To throw down, to knock down with a trip.
«Πλαγιάζω»: To throw the opponent to the side.
«Προβάλλω»: To propose boxing.
«Πτερνίζω»: To strike with the heel.
«Πυξ»: With fists.
«Ράσσω»: To strike hard, to push with great force, to thrown down with a blow and a push.
«Σάκος»: Original meaning: shield. Metaphorically: Protection, defense.
«Στρεβλώνω»: To twist violently, dislocate.
«Συγκράτησις»: Break, pause.
«Τραχηλίζω»: To grab the opponent by the neck to throw him down, to bend the opponent’s neck back and to throw him down.
«Υποσκελίζω»: To throw someone down using the leg, to throw down by tripping.
«Υπτιάζω»: To put the opponent on his back.
8. Victory in the Pangration
Victory could result from the opponent resigning during the match or admitting defeat. The following are also possibilities:
Victory after death. Victory in all three extreme sports (Boxing, Wrestling, Pangration). Victory in Boxing and Pangration. Victory in Wrestling and Pangration.
The prize was given to the victor afterwards.
9. Awards to victorious Pangratiasts
The most common prize in the “Sacred Games” (which did not award cash prizes) was a simple crown. The crown was made of wild olive at Olympia, of laurel at Delphi, of pine at Isthmia and of wild celery at Nemea.
Also mentioned are wool ribbons and shields at the Argive Heraion.
In some competitions, prizes were not of high material value, but rather of symbolic value, but in other competitions the glory and honor of victory was accompanied by a high monetary or material reward. The Panathenaic festival awarded prizes that were not directly financial, but were amphoras filled with oil, which were usually sold by the athletes and held significant value.
At Salamis, a catalogue dating to the 5th century BC has been found; it shows that there were not differences between the prizes given to athletes of extreme sports. It is not clear what the criteria for determine the prize were. There may have been a variety of factors: the demands of the sport, the dangers associated with it, the large or small participation of athletes, and the social and political relationships and links between the agents of the athletes and the athletes themselves with individuals and groups outside of the sport. It is certain, however, that the largest prizes are associated with the most material wealth, which had a positive impact on the social status of the athlete.
10. Prizes to victors in the Pangration
The most common prizes for victors included insertion in a list of victors, champion status, trophies, grants of citizenship, free meals, a homecoming procession, the demolishing of city walls for them to pass (since the city had no need of fortifications when they had such athletic victors), statues, and monuments, including funerary monuments.
The monuments could be sculptures, reliefs or vases (of metal, stone or clay). The most common monuments were statues or busts of the athlete. Other forms of monuments were altars, columns or lists of victors that constituted a monumental group. The inscription was placed on a common stele, a herm or a statue base. Many times the name of the athlete was written on the crown (either inscribed or raised).
On funerary monuments, the primary identity of the deceased was his status as Pangratiast.
11. Praise of victorious Pangratiasts
«Νίκη ακονιτί» ή «Νίκη αμαχεί»: The athlete was victorious without becoming dirty, because his opponent was afraid to face him.
«Ανέφεδρος» ή «εφεδρείας ου λαχόντος»: The athlete was victorious without having a single bye.
«Μήτε αγώνα παραλιπών»: The athlete won without skipping any matches.
«Ασυνέξωστος»: The athlete was unable to be defeated by anyone, unrivaled.
«Μήτε εκκαλεσάμενος» or «ανέκκλητος»: The athlete cannot be challenged by anyone, he has no equal.
«Μήτε συστεφανωθείς»: The athlete was the only victor; he did not have to share the victory with another.
«Μήτε επεξελθών»: The athlete never reached the edges of the arena, on account of the honesty of his play.
«Μήτε παραιτησάμενος»: The athlete did not resign from a single match.
«Μήτε κατά χάριν βασιλικήν αγώνα έχων»: The athlete did not win by an imperial decision.
«Μήτε καινόν αγώνα νικήσας»: The athlete did not win his first match. It was an unprecedented and unexpected victory.
«Περιοδονίκης» ή «Πρώτος εν περιόδω»: The athlete won all the important competitions within a set period: the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games.
«Παραδοξονίκης»: The athlete won an unexpected victory.
«Πρώτος των Eλλήνων»: The athlete has become the best of the Greek Pangratiasts.
«Πρώτος ανθρώπων»: The athlete is the best of all Pangratiasts.
«Πρώτος από της οικουμένης»: The athlete is the best Pangratiast ever.
«Αφ’ Ηρακλέους»: The athlete is the best after Heracles; there are other ranks (third, fourth, fifth, etc.).
12. The audience following the Pangration and other sports
Ancient sources refer in many cases to the public response, which the judges had to take seriously.
There were often quarrels that sometimes led to injuries and even death.
13. Criticism of the Pangration
The ancient testimonia refer to several views about the pankration and Pangratiasts. These are mainly positive. Negative views are exceptional and were never widely accepted.
Most of our information about the social perception towards individual pankratiasts comes from inscriptions. Very little information is available from inscriptions about obscure Pangratiasts. Of course there has been much research about the social background of the athletes and the social stratification in sports.
Several recent studies have emphasized the sport’s violence and the ancient reaction to these athletic events.
14. Representations of the Pangration
Isolated references to representations of Pankratiasts are limited to sculptures. There are many references to statues in Pausanias. The sport was a source of inspiration for reliefs and vases that depicted groups of Pangratiasts.
